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The Changing Functions of Renjian Fojiao (人間佛教) in Mainland China
Since the revival of Buddhism in the People’s Republic of China following the Cultural Revolution, renjian fojiao (人間佛教), often translated as “Humanistic Buddhism,” has become a very prominent label. It has served as a basic concept for various purposes, from the political self-legitimation of Buddhists, to the revival of traditional(ized) thinking, to religious innovation. It has undergone a continuous process of adaptation to Buddhists’ needs at the moment in question. With its initial role, quite early in the 1980s, emphasized officially by Zhao Puchu 趙朴初 (1907-2000), the president of the Buddhist Association of China (BAC), it became an important element of the statutory purpose of the BAC and developed separately from, but not without the influence of, later dynamics in Taiwan. This article reflects on some of the steps in the 40-year development of what has been declared in the People’s Republic of China as renjian fojiao (“Humanistic Buddhism”). It focuses on its metamorphosis within the context of the BAC’s statutory purpose, asking what the concept has been necessary for and how it might still be relevant today.
Humanistic Religion: From Guodian to Vimalakirti
This paper will argue that the term “Humanistic Buddhism,” which Venerable Master Hsing Yun describes as central to all of Buddhism, is also fundamental to Chinese religion as a collective group. Such an expansion is in keeping with the spirit of his recent publication 365 Days for Travelers: Wisdom from Chinese Literary and Buddhist Classics. Here we see an enlargement of humanism to include a general assessment of Chinese culture. It because of this expansion that this paper uses the term “Humanistic Religion” instead of “Humanistic Buddhism.” Crucial support for the centrality of humanism to Chinese religion comes from it being expressed with the greatest clarity and earliest date in the recently excavated Guodian corpus ( 郭店楚簡). As such, Guodian represents a missing link between Buddhism and other pre-Han religious systems. Venerable Master Hsing-yun sees Humanistic Buddhism as a system that has particular utility for overcoming divisions; as such it is interested in developing the linkages with indigenous Chinese religion that I will be detailing in this paper. Specifically, Humanistic Buddhism: Holding True to the Original Intents of Buddha, states that the schisms which arose after the passing of the Buddha can be overcome with humanism.2 In the publications by Fo Guang Shan I have reviewed so far, however, recently excavated manuscripts have not been considered and this will one of the contributions of this paper.
《佛教海線絲綢之路》第三章——教大圓環的弘傳和發展
佛教在整個印度半島乃至斯里蘭卡的傳播運動,令人感到震撼。然而,離開印度文化及其語言境域的佛教傳統,面臨更大的挑戰。藉由「大圓環」路線,佛教的思想與實踐傳播至距離印度數千英里之外的地方,商人必經的沿海與河岸一帶,皆是佛教拓展的新據點,致使這個佛教「大圓環」的弧線涵蓋整個歐亞大陸的東南部。「大圓環」的一部分由印度西海岸延伸至印度河谷,穿越喜馬拉雅山脈的盡頭到達塔里木盆地,最後抵達長安(今西安)地帶,這是一條超過4 千英里的陸路。而與海域相連的「大圓環」路線則始於印度西海岸,環繞半島和斯里蘭卡,沿著印度東海岸到孟加拉灣,再經由孟加拉、緬甸、馬來半島的海岸線向東延展,經泰國、柬埔寨和越南,向北轉到東亞的中國、韓國、日本的港口。此沿海路圓環所串連的陸地與海洋,其周長加總起來足以環繞赤道一圈,其中曲折的海岸線長達2 萬英里,是陸路里程的五倍。
人間佛教佛陀本懷:三、人間佛教的根本教義
佛陀說法,都是隨弟子的根機利鈍,而有不同的教化,但是佛陀也有許多基本的思想、教義。例如,全世界公認的原始佛教時代,佛陀經常講苦、空、無常、無我;到了後期,才鼓勵信徒要行六度萬行,要發四無量心,要學四弘誓願等。
當代漢傳佛教中菩薩戒與毗奈耶的相容性——兩岸比較研究(上)
菩薩思想自中世紀以來就穩步發展,成為漢傳大乘佛教的主要特徵。承襲大乘佛教傳統的比丘和比丘尼在三壇大戒戒會中也會受持菩薩戒;換言之,兼受菩薩戒與比丘/比丘尼戒兩種律儀,是大乘佛教出家僧人的顯著特徵。這一情況延伸出值得探討的議題:在台灣和中國大陸當前的社會文化背景下,中國僧侶對於菩薩戒的認知、理念及其相關實踐為何?雖然這兩個地區根源於相同的漢傳佛教傳統,修行、實踐方式等仍有些許不同。再者,這項長期、跨兩岸的比較研究,也揭示佛教戒律與菩薩思想之間潛在的矛盾與衝突。
當代漢傳佛教中菩薩戒與毗奈耶的相容性——兩岸比較研究(下)
菩薩思想自中世紀以來就穩步發展,成為漢傳大乘佛教的主要特徵。承襲大乘佛教傳統的比丘和比丘尼在三壇大戒戒會中也會受持菩薩戒;換言之,兼受菩薩戒與比丘/比丘尼戒兩種律儀,是大乘佛教出家僧人的顯著特徵。這一情況延伸出值得探討的議題:在台灣和中國大陸當前的社會文化背景下,中國僧侶對於菩薩戒的認知、理念及其相關實踐為何?雖然這兩個地區根源於相同的漢傳佛教傳統,修行、實踐方式等仍有些許不同。再者,這項長期、跨兩岸的比較研究,也揭示佛教戒律與菩薩思想之間潛在的矛盾與衝突。
論貪、欲及人間佛教的普世價值——以美國為例
貪婪,我們都知道貪婪是個原罪。由美國公民麥道夫(BernieMadoff)所規劃的投資基金相當成功,吸引不少富裕投資客。每年他總能回饋投資客高於其他基金的報酬,不過最後卻爆出他其實並沒有將資金投入市場,而是仿照龐茲騙局及老鼠會的手法,拿新進投資客的資金作為前批投資客的報酬。龐茲所經營的非法吸金騙局曾經相當火熱,並讓他成為紐約市的明星,受到金融界高度讚譽。不過,一旦客戶得知損失鉅額資金,他頓時淪為貪婪的小丑。當然,局中的參與者也是貪婪的俘虜。
人間佛教的現世關懷
韋伯(M.Weber)在《基督新教倫理與資本主義精神》(1904)一書,探討基督新教的合理化發展與現代資本主義之間,存在著選擇性的親近性,開啟宗教對現世文明影響分析之先河。韋伯晚年寫成的《世界諸宗教的經濟倫理》,更進一步檢視不同宗教對現世經濟生活所抱持的態度,以突顯出基督新教現世宰治(inner-worldly mastery)的性格。
人間佛教和中國佛教的未來
佛教傳入中國,佛典開始得到翻譯和流傳,始於二世紀後漢桓帝時代。自此以後,在王朝的興亡盛衰以及各朝各代治世的背景下,譯經僧陸續從印度、西域來到中國;其中也有從中國前往西域、印度求法的僧侶,他們擔負起譯經僧的角色,並在回國後開始弘揚佛教,佛教因此逐漸在中國社會產生廣泛且深遠的影響。在這一過程中,為了適應時代的變化,佛教吸收了中國固有的思想及信仰,呈現出了與印度佛教不同的風貌。因此,這種已成為中國化且延續至今的佛教,我們總稱為中國佛教(Chinese Buddhism)。
臨濟義玄與星雲大師之中國禪宗理念在其當代社會的應用
臨濟義玄(?-866)與佛光山星雲大師(1927-)的年代雖然相隔逾千年,但他們在社會裡,同樣創新地應用禪宗教義幫助發掘人的良善本性,並為當前的生存境況創造超越的價值。二位宗教領袖不僅在迫害中倖存,也將自己的信仰推向了更高的境界。本文研究二位大師將禪宗教義落實在他們所處時代的困境和因緣條件的歷程,尤其著重在回顧義玄、星雲大師如何運用前輩的教誨,改善當時的社會政治環境,並以大家聽得懂的語言,融合現實生活與信仰。
